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Neuropeptides orexin A and B (OX-A/B, also called hypocretin 1 and 2) are released selectively by a population of neurons which projects widely into the entire central nervous system but is localized in a restricted area of the tuberal region of the hypothalamus, caudal to the paraventricular nucleus. The OX system prominently targets brain structures involved in the regulation of wake-sleep state switching, and also orchestrates multiple physiological functions. The degeneration and dysregulation of the OX system promotes narcoleptic phenotypes both in humans and animals. Hence, this review begins with the already proven involvement of OX in narcolepsy, but it mainly discusses the new pre-clinical and clinical insights of the role of OX in three major neurological disorders characterized by sleep impairment which have been recently associated with OX dysfunction, such as Alzheimer's disease, stroke and Prader Willi syndrome, and have been emerged over the past 10 years to be strongly associated with the OX dysfunction and should be more considered in the future. In the light of the impairment of the OX system in these neurological disorders, it is conceivable to speculate that the integrity of the OX system is necessary for a healthy functioning body.<br /><br /> A noxious stimulus following a more intense stimulus often feels less painful than continuous noxious stimulation. This effect, known as offset analgesia (OA), may be due to descending inhibitory control, to changes in peripheral neural transmission or both. The timing and location of noxious thermal stimulation were manipulated to better understand the peripheral and central contributions to OA.<br /><br /> In a first experiment, participants (n=29) provided continuous pain ratings as stimuli were delivered to the palm or dorsum of each hand. Offset trials included 44°C (T1), 45°C (T2) and 44°C (T3) stimulation periods. Baseline trials were identical except the T3 temperature fell to 35°C. Constant trials were 44°C throughout. The duration of T1 and T2 was either 1s or 6s, whereas T3 was always 12s. In a second experiment, participants (n=43) rated pain levels of noxious stimuli presented to the forearms with varying T1 and T2 durations (3, 6, 10 or 13s) and a 20s T3 period.<br /><br /> OA effects became stronger with increasary for OA. Our studies suggest methods to unravel the different peripheral and central contributions to OA.<br /><br />Offset analgesia (OA) is a fundamentally temporal phenomenon dependent on dynamic changes in stimulus intensity. Here we demonstrate increased OA with increased stimulus duration. This finding implies the more slowly-responding AMH-I peripheral mechanoreceptors contribute to OA. The more rapidly responding AMH-II peripheral mechanoreceptors, however, may be absent or more difficult to activate in the palm where we did not observe OA. This finding implies that the AMH-II receptors are necessary for OA. Our studies suggest methods to unravel the different peripheral and central contributions to OA.<br /><br /> Although communication quality is associated with patient outcomes, racial disparities in communication exist, disproportionately burdening Black patients. [https://www.selleckchem.com/products/ziritaxestat.html Ziritaxestat purchase] However, most communication research focuses on verbal behaviors in predominantly White patient populations.We used a newly developed and theory-guided network analysis that examines the dynamic interplay and behavioral convergence and divergence between Black patients with cancer and their oncologists during cancer treatment discussions.<br /><br /> We applied a nonverbal behavioral coding system to thin slices of video recordings of Black patients and their oncologists discussing treatment. We then estimated 3 networks 1) a temporal network to determine whether a nonverbal behavior predicts another nonverbal behavior at the next time point in an interaction, and how much each nonverbal behavior influences other nonverbal behaviors and is influenced by other nonverbal behaviors; 2) a contemporaneous network to determine whether a nonverbal behavior co-occurs with other nonverbal behaviors at the same time point in an interaction; and 3) a between-dyads network to examine the covariation between nonverbal behaviors across all dyads.<br /><br /> Black patients (n = 74) and their non-Black physicians (n = 15) showed a mix of convergence and divergence in their nonverbal behaviors at the same points in time, from one time point to the next, and across dyads. Across analyses, convergence was most likely to occur when physicians matched their behaviors to their patients; especially with smiling, gaze, leaning, and laughter behaviors.<br /><br /> Our findings reveal patterns of modifiable behaviors that can potentially inform interventions to reduce disparities in clinical communication and, in turn, treatment and mortality disparities.<br /><br />Our findings reveal patterns of modifiable behaviors that can potentially inform interventions to reduce disparities in clinical communication and, in turn, treatment and mortality disparities.<br /><br /> The Eocene-Oligocene transition (EOT; 34-33 Ma) was marked by global cooling and increased seasonality and aridity, leading to a shift in North American floras from subtropical forests to deciduous hardwood forests similar to today. This shift is well documented taxonomically and biogeographically, but its ecological nature is less known.<br /><br /> Using the relationship between petiole cross-sectional area and leaf mass, we estimated leaf dry mass per area (LMA), a functional trait tied to plant resource investment and expenditure, at 22 western North American sites spanning the EOT to determine how the broad restructuring of vegetation during this time was reflected in leaf economics.<br /><br /> There was no overall shift in LMA between pre-EOT and post-EOT floras; instead, changes in LMA across sites were mostly driven by a negative correlation with dry-season precipitation and a positive correlation with paleoelevation. These patterns held for both whole sites and subsets of sites containing taxa with similar biogeographical histories (taxa that persisted in the highlands across the EOT or that migrated to the lowlands) and are consistent with most observations in extant floras.<br /><br /> Our data provide a geological context for understanding environmentally paced changes in leaf-economic strategies, particularly linking leaf economic strategies to dry-season precipitation and paleoelevation.<br /><br />Our data provide a geological context for understanding environmentally paced changes in leaf-economic strategies, particularly linking leaf economic strategies to dry-season precipitation and paleoelevation.